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n the process ofmating。 the desire to breed； to disperse one’s genes； is the most powerful impulse in nature。
as sherwin b。 nuland has put it： “empires fall； ids explode； great symphonies are written；and behind all of it is a single instinct that demands satisfaction。” from an evolutionary pointof view； sex is really just a reward mechanism to encourage us to pass on our genetic material。
scientists had only barely absorbed the surprising news that most of our dna doesn’t doanything when even more unexpected findings began to turn up。 first in germany and then inswitzerland researchers performed some rather bizarre experiments that produced curiouslyunbizarre outes。 in one they took the gene that controlled the development of a mouse’seye and inserted it into the larva of a fruit fly。 the thought was that it might producesomething interestingly grotesque。 in fact； the mouse…eye gene not only made a viable eye inthe fruit fly； it made a fly’s eye。 here were two creatures that hadn’t shared a monancestor for 500 million years； yet could swap genetic material as if they were sisters。
the story was the same wherever researchers looked。 they found that they could inserthuman dna into certain cells of flies； and the flies would accept it as if it were their own。
2junk dna does have a use。 it is the portion employed in dna fingerprinting。 its practicality for this purposewas discovered accidentally by alec jeffreys； a scientist at the university of leicester in england。 in 1986jeffreys was studying dna sequences for genetic markers associated with heritable diseases when he wasapproached by the police and asked if he could help connect a suspect to two murders。 he realized his techniqueought to work perfectly for solving criminal cases…and so it proved。 a young baker with the improbable name ofcolin pitchfork was sentenced to two life terms in prison for the murders。
over 60 percent of human genes； it turns out； are fundamentally the same as those found infruit flies。 at least 90 percent correlate at some level to those found in mice。 （we even havethe same genes for making a tail； if only they would switch on。） in field after field；researchers found that whatever organism they were working on—whether nematode wormsor human beings—they were often studying essentially the same genes。 life； it appeared； wasdrawn up from a single set of blueprints。
further probings revealed the existence of a clutch of master control genes； each directingthe development of a section of the body； which were dubbed homeotic （from a greek wordmeaning “similar”） or hox genes。 hox genes answered the long…bewildering question of howbillions of embryonic cells； all arising from a single fertilized egg and carrying identicaldna； know where to go and what to do—that this one should bee a liver cell； this one astretchy neuron； this one a bubble of blood； this one part of the shimmer on a beating wing。 itis the hox genes that instruct them； and they do it for all organisms in much the same way。
interestingly； the amount of genetic material and how it is organized doesn’t necessarily； oreven generally； reflect the level of sophistication of the creature that contains it。 we haveforty…six chromosomes； but some ferns have more than six hundred。 the lungfish； one of theleast evolved of all plex animals； has forty times as much dna as we have。 even themon newt is more genetically splendorous than we are； by a factor of five。
clearly it is not the number of genes you have； but what you do with them。 this is a verygood thing because the number of genes in humans has taken a big hit lately。 until recently itwas thought that humans had at least 100；000 genes； possibly a good many more； but thatnumber was drastically reduced by the first results of the human genome project； whichsuggested a figure more like 35；000 or 40；000 genes—about the same number as are found ingrass。 that came as both a surprise and a disappointment。
it won’t have escaped your attention that genes have been monly implicated in anynumber of human frailties。 exultant scientists have at various times declared themselves tohave found the genes responsible for obesity； schizophrenia； homosexuality； criminality；violence； alcoholism； even shoplifting and homelessness。 perhaps the apogee （or nadir） of thisfaith in biodeterminism was a study published in the journal science in 1980 contending thatwomen are genetically inferior at mathematics。 in fact； we now know； almost nothing aboutyou is so acmodatingly simple。
this is clearly a pity in one important sense； for if you had individual genes that determinedheight or propensity to diabetes or to baldness or any other distinguishing trait； then it wouldbe easy—paratively easy anyway—to isolate and tinker with them。 unfortunately； thirty…five thousand genes functioning independently is not nearly enough to produce the kind ofphysical plexity that makes a satisfactory human being。 genes clearly therefore mustcooperate。 a few disorders—hemophilia； parkinson’s disease； huntington’s disease； andcystic fibrosis； for example—are caused by lone dysfunctional genes； but as a rule disruptivegenes are weeded out by natural selection long before they can bee permanentlytroublesome to a species or population。 for the most part our fate and fort—and even oureye color—are determined not by individual genes but by plexes of genes working inalliance。 that’s why it is so hard to work out how it all fits together and why we won’t beproducing designer babies anytime soon。
in fact； the more we have learned in recent years the more plicated matters have tendedto bee。 even thinking； it turns out； affects the ways genes work。 how fast a man’s beard grows； for instance； is partly a function of how much he thinks about sex （because thinkingabout sex produces a testosterone surge）。 in the early 1990s； scientists made an even moreprofound discovery when they found they could knock out supposedly vital genes fromembryonic mice； and the mice were not only often born healthy； but sometimes were actuallyfitter than their brothers and sisters who had not been tampered with。 when certain importantgenes were destroyed； it turned out； others were stepping in to fill the breach。 this wasexcellent news for us as organisms； but not so good for our understanding of how cells worksince it introduced an extra layer of plexity to something that we had barely begun tounderstand anyway。
it is largely because of these plicating factors that cracking the human genome becameseen almost at once as only a beginning。 the genome； as eric lander of mit has put it； is likea parts list for the human body： it tells us what we are made of； but says nothing about howwe work。 what’s needed now is the operating manual—instructions for how to make it go。
we are not close to that point yet。
so now the quest is to crack the human proteome—a concept so novel that the termproteome didn’t even exist a decade ago。 the proteome is the library of information thatcreates proteins。 “unfortunately；” observed scientific american in the spring of 2002； “theproteome is much more plicated than the genome。”
that’s putting it mildly。 proteins； you will remember； ar